All fact sheets · The Strata Memo
Vanadium
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Chemical details
- State at room conditions
- Solid
- Melting point
- 2,183 K (1,910 °C)
- Boiling point
- 3,680 K (3,407 °C)
- Density
- 6.0 g/cm³
- Common oxidation states
- +5, +4, +3, +2
- Electronegativity (Pauling)
- 1.63
- Atomic radius
- 179 pm
- First ionization energy
- 6.746 eV
- Discovered
- 1801
Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine, PubChem, Periodic Table of Elements (element Vanadium) (current at retrieval)
On the USGS 2025 List of Critical Minerals. Figures: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 (data release, public domain). Estimates are USGS's; check the USGS chapter for notes. Each panel names its source; full citations are in the methodology source register.
Overview
The headline numbers: how much the U.S. depends on imports and how concentrated supply is.
How much does the U.S. import?
of U.S. vanadium use was met by imports in 2025 (USGS net import reliance).
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)
Did you know?
Vanadium is named after Vanadis, a Norse name for the goddess Freyja, because its compounds come in so many beautiful colors.
Checked against two independent sources. Verified 2026-10-26.
Sources: Wikipedia · WebElements (Wikipedia text is CC BY-SA)
How concentrated is supply?
98% of world production comes from three countries (China, Russia, Brazil). Highly concentrated.
Thirds of the bar: under 33%, 33 to 65%, 66% and over. Our own rule of thumb, not a USGS rating.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)
Supply
Who produces it, where the reserves are, where U.S. imports come from, and how U.S. supply has moved.
Who has it, and who digs it?
Where it is produced, 2025
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| China | 75% |
| Russia | 19% |
| Brazil | 5% |
| South Africa | 5% |
Where the reserves are
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| Australia | 48% |
| China | 28% |
| Russia | 24% |
| South Africa | 2% |
| Brazil | 0% |
| United States | 0% |
Share of the world total as printed by USGS (rounded). Production and reserves are different things: reserves are what is economic to mine. Hover or focus a bar for its value, or switch to the table view.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)
Where U.S. imports come from
Choose a data set, then a view. A country keeps the same color in every chart on this page. Grey means other countries, or a country beyond the seven colors (always labeled). Hover or focus a mark for its value, or use the table view.
- Canada50%
- Austria35%
- Russia6%
- Latvia4%
- Other countries5%
| Country | Share of U.S. imports | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 50% | 50.0% |
| Austria | 35% | 35.0% |
| Russia | 6% | 6.0% |
| Latvia | 4% | 4.0% |
| Other countries | 5% | 5.0% |
Average share of U.S. imports of ferrovanadium, 2021–24, as printed by USGS (rounded, so shares may not sum to 100). Other countries are USGS's own grouping.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)
- Brazil47%
- South Africa43%
- Russia6%
- Other countries4%
| Country | Share of U.S. imports | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Brazil | 47% | 47.0% |
| South Africa | 43% | 43.0% |
| Russia | 6% | 6.0% |
| Other countries | 4% | 4.0% |
Average share of U.S. imports of vanadium pentoxide, 2021–24, as printed by USGS (rounded, so shares may not sum to 100). Other countries are USGS's own grouping.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)
- Canada34%
- Brazil13%
- South Africa13%
- Austria10%
- Other countries30%
| Country | Share of U.S. imports | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 34% | 34.0% |
| Brazil | 13% | 13.0% |
| South Africa | 13% | 13.0% |
| Austria | 10% | 10.0% |
| Other countries | 30% | 30.0% |
Average share of U.S. imports of total, 2021–24, as printed by USGS (rounded, so shares may not sum to 100). Other countries are USGS's own grouping.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)
- Australia91% · $45.7M
- Mozambique3% · $1.4M
- Singapore2% · $914K
- Taiwan1% · $681K
- Canada1% · $657K
- Mexico1% · $533K
| Country | U.S. imports, 2025 | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Australia | 91% · $45.7M | 91.6% |
| Mozambique | 3% · $1.4M | 2.8% |
| Singapore | 2% · $914K | 1.8% |
| Taiwan | 1% · $681K | 1.4% |
| Canada | 1% · $657K | 1.3% |
| Mexico | 1% · $533K | 1.1% |
U.S. general imports (customs value) in calendar 2025 under HS 2615.90; countries beyond the top six are grouped. The code can include goods beyond this mineral. The Shift view compares each country's share of 2025 with its share of Jan to Aug 2026 (shares of each period's total).
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Trade API: U.S. imports by HS code and country (calendar 2025; Jan to Aug 2026) (data months 2025-12, 2026-08)
- Canada49% · $37.4M
- Czech Republic34% · $25.8M
- Austria9% · $7.2M
- Japan3% · $2.5M
- India3% · $2.4M
- Latvia2% · $1.5M
| Country | U.S. imports, 2025 | Share of this chart |
|---|---|---|
| Canada | 49% · $37.4M | 48.8% |
| Czech Republic | 34% · $25.8M | 33.7% |
| Austria | 9% · $7.2M | 9.3% |
| Japan | 3% · $2.5M | 3.2% |
| India | 3% · $2.4M | 3.1% |
| Latvia | 2% · $1.5M | 1.9% |
U.S. general imports (customs value) in calendar 2025 under HS 7202.92; countries beyond the top six are grouped. The code can include goods beyond this mineral. The Shift view compares each country's share of 2025 with its share of Jan to Aug 2026 (shares of each period's total).
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Trade API: U.S. imports by HS code and country (calendar 2025; Jan to Aug 2026) (data months 2025-12, 2026-08)
Price
Price, average, vanadium pentoxide, dollars per pound
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)
Trade and tariffs
Tariff codes and the countries behind U.S. imports and exports.
Trade codes and tariffs
| HTS code | What it covers | Normal rate | Column 2 rate |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2615.90 | Niobium (columbium), tantalum, vanadium or zirconium ores and concentrates: Other | Free | Free to 30% |
| 7202.92 | Ferrovanadium | 4.2% * | 25% |
Rates from the U.S. Harmonized Tariff Schedule (USITC, saved 2026-10-26). The normal rate is column 1 general; column 2 applies to countries without normal trade relations. A range means different products under the code have different rates. An asterisk means the schedule footnotes point to Chapter 99 additional-duty headings. Section 232, Section 301, emergency tariffs and antidumping or countervailing duties are set in separate notices and are not shown. Look up any code at hts.usitc.gov. These are the main codes for this mineral, not a complete list.
Source: U.S. International Trade Commission, Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States, general and column 2 rates (edition current when saved)
U.S. trade by country
U.S. imports in 2025 by source country, code 7202.92
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| Canada | 49% · $37.4M |
| Czech Republic | 34% · $25.8M |
| Austria | 9% · $7.2M |
| Japan | 3% · $2.5M |
| India | 3% · $2.4M |
| Latvia | 2% · $1.5M |
U.S. exports in 2025 by destination, code 2615.90
| Name | Value |
|---|---|
| China | 62% · $5.9M |
| Thailand | 15% · $1.5M |
| Taiwan | 10% · $910K |
| Lithuania | 5% · $469K |
| Canada | 3% · $238K |
| India | 2% · $212K |
2615.90 Niobium, tantalum & vanadium ores & concentrates
Top import sources Australia 91%, Mozambique 3%, Singapore 2%
Top export destinations China 62%, Thailand 15%, Taiwan 10%
7202.92 Ferrovanadium
Top import sources Canada 49%, Czech Republic 34%, Austria 9%
Top export destinations Canada 86%, Austria 14%, Mexico 0%
U.S. Census Bureau International Trade API, saved 2026-10-26. Imports are general imports (customs value) and exports are total exports, in U.S. dollars. Duty collected is Census's calculated duty on imports for consumption. Figures cover every 10-digit product under the code, so they can include goods beyond this mineral, and the duty shown is not split into Section 232, Section 301 or antidumping duties. Bars show the largest code for each direction. Group rows such as the EU or OECD are left out so no country is counted twice.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Trade API: U.S. imports and exports by HS code and country (calendar 2025, and January to Aug 2026) (data months 2025-12, 2026-08)
Value chain and risk
Where in the chain the bottlenecks sit, and what other governments and sources say about supply risk.
Value chain: where the bottlenecks are
Mining bottleneck
U.S. vanadium mining in Utah stopped in early 2020 and was not restarted in 2025, while China is the world's top producer, mostly as a coproduct of steelmaking. (no U.S. activity)
The source says
“Vanadium production in Utah from the mining of uraniferous sandstones on the Colorado Plateau ceased in early 2020 and was not restarted in 2025.”
“In 2025, China continued to be the world’s top vanadium producer, with most of its production originating as a coproduct from vanadiferous titanomagnetite ores processed during steelmaking.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Vanadium (PDF page 206) (2026-02)
Ore processing and primary recovery
U.S. vanadium mining from Colorado Plateau uranium sandstones ceased in early 2020 and had not restarted in 2025, and no primary-ore vanadium output is reported. (no U.S. activity)
The source says
“Vanadium production in Utah from the mining of uraniferous sandstones on the Colorado Plateau ceased in early 2020 and was not restarted in 2025.”
“Production from primary ore and concentrate — — — — —”
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 (Vanadium) (2026)
Refining and separation
U.S. vanadium products (ferrovanadium, chemicals, alloys and pentoxide) were made only from secondary materials such as petroleum residues, spent catalysts and utility ash, in five states. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“Secondary vanadium production continued in Arkansas, Delaware, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas, where processed waste materials (petroleum residues, spent catalysts, and utility ash) were used to produce ferrovanadium, vanadium-bearing chemicals or specialty alloys, and vanadium pentoxide.”
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 (Vanadium) (2026)
Metal, alloy and chemical
U.S. vanadium products come from secondary production in five States, made from waste such as petroleum residues, spent catalysts and utility ash. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“Secondary vanadium production continued in Arkansas, Delaware, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas, where processed waste materials (petroleum residues, spent catalysts, and utility ash) were used to produce ferrovanadium, vanadium-bearing chemicals or specialty alloys, and vanadium pentoxide.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Vanadium (PDF page 206) (2026-02)
Imports of ferrovanadium came from Canada (50%) and Austria (35%), and vanadium pentoxide from Brazil (47%) and South Africa (43%), in 2021-24. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“Ferrovanadium: Canada, 50%; Austria, 35%; Russia, 6%; Latvia, 4%; and other, 5%.”
“Vanadium pentoxide: Brazil, 47%; South Africa, 43%; Russia, 6%; and other, 4%.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Vanadium (PDF page 206) (2026-02)
Components and end use
Metallurgical use, mainly as an alloying agent in iron and steel, took more than 90% of U.S. vanadium in 2025. (U.S. role not stated)
The source says
“Metallurgical use, primarily as an alloying agent for iron and steel, accounted for more than 90% of domestic reported vanadium consumption in 2025.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Vanadium (PDF page 206) (2026-02)
Recycling
Vanadium recycling is mainly the reprocessing of vanadium catalysts into new catalysts. (partly U.S.)
The source says
“Recycling of vanadium is mainly associated with reprocessing vanadium catalysts into new catalysts.”
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026, Vanadium (PDF page 206) (2026-02)
Pilot. Summaries are ours, from official pages; each quoted passage is checked against the saved page. “Bottleneck” (orange dot) is shown only where the quote shows one country dominating the stage or the United States relying on imports for it. “No sourced data yet” means we have not found a source, not that the stage is unproblematic.
Mines, plants and partners
Named facilities with their operators and locations, as each source describes them on the date shown. 3 sourced entries for Vanadium.
Mining
Largo Inc.
Bahia State, about 250 km southwest of Salvador, Brazil · Operating
The source says
“The Maracás Menchen Mine, located in Bahia State, Brazil, is home to one of the world’s highest-grade vanadium resources”
“By maintaining full control of the value chain—from mining and processing at the Maracás Menchen Mine to global sales and distribution”
Source: Largo Inc., Maracás Menchen Mine (2025)
Refining and separation
Energy Fuels Inc.
Utah, United States · Operating
The source says
“Energy Fuels also owns the White Mesa Mill in Utah”
“At the Mill, Energy Fuels also produces advanced rare earth element products, vanadium oxide (when market conditions warrant)”
Source: Energy Fuels, Energy Fuels Now Producing Heavy Rare Earth Element Oxides (news release) (2025-07-17)
Recycling
AMG Vanadium LLC (subsidiary of AMG Critical Materials N.V.)
Cambridge, Ohio (with a newer plant near Zanesville, Ohio), United States · Status not stated
The source says
“A subsidiary of AMG Critical Materials N.V., and founded in 1952, AMG Vanadium is headquartered in Cambridge, Ohio, USA and recently completed a $300M expansion in nearby Zanesville.”
“AMG V’s proprietary V-CYCLE® roasting and pyrometallurgical process converts spent refinery catalyst and other vanadium bearing residues into ferrovanadium (Ferovan®)”
Source: AMG Vanadium, About Us (2023)
A curated list, not a complete register: it shows facilities we could confirm in a source page, and a missing name means we have not sourced it, not that it does not exist. Each quoted passage is checked against the saved page. Partnerships are listed only where the source states them.
Policy and funding
Federal items we track for this mineral, each linked to its original.
Federal awards already made
Largo Resources USA Inc · Department of Defense · $60.1M obligated · started 2026-07-01
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
U.S. Vanadium LLC · Department of Defense · $20.1M obligated · started 2026-07-01
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
The Chemours Co Fc LLC · Department of Defense · $4.5M obligated · started 2026-05-07
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
The Chemours Co Fc LLC · Department of Defense · $4.1M obligated · started 2025-05-27
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
Tyfast Energy Corp. · Department of Defense · $1.4M obligated · started 2026-01-12
Source: usaspending.gov, retrieved 2026-10-29
The 5 largest of 6 AI-tagged awards from USAspending (last 12 months, found by keyword; some are only loosely about this mineral). See all awards for Vanadium.
Source: U.S. Department of the Treasury, Bureau of the Fiscal Service, USAspending.gov: spending by award (contracts and grants, last 12 months) (award start dates per item)
Data tables
The USGS figures behind the charts. Click a column heading to sort.
Vanadium: USGS tables
United States
| Measure | Unit | 2024 | 2025 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent consumption | percent | 46 | 41 |
| Production from primary ore and concentrate | metric tons | — | — |
| Production from ash, residues, and spent catalysts | metric tons | 6,800 | 7,500 |
| Imports for consumption: Aluminum-vanadium master alloy | metric tons | 67 | 10 |
| Imports for consumption: Ash and residues | metric tons | 2,180 | 1,200 |
| Imports for consumption: Ferrovanadium | metric tons | 1,820 | 2,200 |
| Imports for consumption: Oxides and hydroxides, other | metric tons | 139 | 460 |
| Imports for consumption: Vanadium chemicals | metric tons | 528 | 560 |
| Imports for consumption: Vanadium metal | metric tons | 9 | 30 |
| Imports for consumption: Vanadium ores and concentrates | metric tons | 395 | 90 |
| Imports for consumption: Vanadium pentoxide | metric tons | 2,360 | 1,800 |
| Exports: Aluminum-vanadium master alloy | metric tons | 83 | 22 |
| Exports: Ash and residues | metric tons | 955 | 580 |
| Exports: Ferrovanadium | metric tons | 68 | 10 |
| Exports: Oxides and hydroxides, other | metric tons | 404 | 380 |
| Exports: Vanadium metal | metric tons | 3 | 2 |
World production (metric tons; top 6 of 6, plus other countries)
| Country | 2024 | 2025 | Share |
|---|---|---|---|
| China | 84,000 | 82,000 | 75% |
| Russia | 21,000 | 21,000 | 19% |
| Brazil | 5,190 | 5,300 | 5% |
| South Africa | 8,050 | 5,000 | 5% |
| United States | — | — | |
| Australia | — | — |
World total 2025: 110,000 metric tons (as printed by USGS, rounded).
World reserves (metric tons; top 6 of 6, plus other countries)
| Country | 2025 | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Australia | 10,000 | 48% |
| China | 5,800 | 28% |
| Russia | 5,000 | 24% |
| South Africa | 520 | 2% |
| Brazil | 94 | 0% |
| United States | 50 | 0% |
World total 2025: 21,000 metric tons (as printed by USGS, rounded).
U.S. import sources: Ferrovanadium (percent of imports, 2021–24)
| Country | Share (%) |
|---|---|
| Canada | 50 |
| Austria | 35 |
| Russia | 6 |
| Latvia | 4 |
| Other countries | 5 |
U.S. import sources: Vanadium pentoxide (percent of imports, 2021–24)
| Country | Share (%) |
|---|---|
| Brazil | 47 |
| South Africa | 43 |
| Russia | 6 |
| Other countries | 4 |
U.S. import sources: Total (percent of imports, 2021–24)
| Country | Share (%) |
|---|---|
| Canada | 34 |
| Brazil | 13 |
| South Africa | 13 |
| Austria | 10 |
| Other countries | 30 |
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: Vanadium (February 2026)